1.2. Why LLL should be promoted

Emerging economic, technological, environmental and social changes signal the need to foster adaptation, creativity and, most importantly, learning that continues throughout life. People can no longer navigate their life course using only the skills and knowledge acquired at school, college or university.

As we will see in Chapter 2 , a number of countries have already put LLL at the heart of national policies for economic and social transformation as they strive to become learning societies. Policies implemented in different regions of the world confirm that LLL is being embraced as a key guiding principle for articulation in education, social and labour market policies at national and local levels. This serves as an acknowledgement by countries that LLL has a multitude of benefits and can contribute to improved living environments, better health and well-being, more cohesive communities, enhanced civic engagement, and better employment opportunities. Schuller et al. (2004) point to social outcomes in particular, identifying the positive influence of learning on human and social capital and the benefits of these outcomes on the individual and their community.

To demonstrate the great value of LLL, this section makes the case for its promotion using six major trends affecting the world today. In each instance, the trend is defined and an overview of related opportunities as well as current and potential consequences is given. The role of LLL is then highlighted with a focus on its benefits, which, across all trends, includes the cultivation of adaptability and creativity among populations.

1.2.1. Developments in digital technologies

Notably in the past decade, mobile technology has become increasingly multifunctional, portable and affordable, opening new opportunities for learning in formal, non-formal and informal settings, especially in communities that previously had limited opportunities to access and use technology (UNESCO, 2022). Concurrently, new technologies – such as automation, artificial intelligence (AI), the internet of things and blockchain – are significantly changing the skills and competences needed for existing jobs; causing routine, low-skilled occupations to disappear; and resulting in the creation of new jobs and industries (ILO, 2021). The networked nature of modern technology, combined with AI, is also changing our interactions, communications, media and entertainment in ways that profoundly shape our ways of being (Poquet and de Laat, 2021). 

Through its indicators and implementation strategies, SDG 4 explicitly recognizes the role of technology in all forms of education and learning. Target 4.4 specifically measures the proportion of youth and adults with information and communications technology (ICT) skills, recognizing it as a major component of the skills needed for employment, decent jobs and entrepreneurship. Developing ICT skills, including digital literacy, enables learners take full advantage of digital devices, the internet, and online resources for learning opportunities (UNESCO, 2020). These opportunities include, among others, using mobile technologies for basic literacy, obtaining tertiary qualifications online and at distance, utilizing virtual and augmented reality for safer and more effective vocational education and training (UNESCO and UNESCO Bangkok, 2017), and combining big data with machine learning algorithms to guide adults enrolled in work-relevant skills courses and offer career guidance.

At the same time, widespread differences in digital infrastructure and digital skills globally point to a significant ‘digital divide’ among and within countries. At the end of 2019, the International Telecommunication Union (ITU), a specialized agency of the United Nations responsible for matters related to ICT, estimated that 49 per cent of the world’s population still did not have access to the internet (ITU, 2022). Differences in ownership and use of mobile phones also exist between genders: women are 7 per cent less likely than men to own a mobile phone and 15 per cent less likely to use mobile internet (GSMA, 2021). The Digital Economy and Society Index (DESI), which summarizes indicators on Europe’s digital performance and tracks the progress of EU countries, shows that 40 per cent of adults lack basic digital skills (European Commission, 2021). Among youth and adults from the most vulnerable groups, such as refugees, internally displaced persons (IDPs) and migrants, technological access and literacy data suggest that they suffer from multiple intersecting disadvantages that limit learning opportunities offered through the internet and digital technology (UIL, forthcoming).

Technology has also prompted ethical, governance and privacy concerns. Advanced technologies such as artificial intelligence algorithms have unambiguously been shown to exacerbate bias, perpetuate gender stereotypes and impact negatively on other aspects of work, such as on hiring and income (EQUALS and UNESCO, 2019). Increased use of digital technologies has also led to accumulation of education data by a small number of global corporations that could be used for unanticipated commercial purposes, and for which consent was never sought or provided (UNESCO, 2020). These concerns suggest that appropriate safeguards and boundaries should be developed around values of collective community engagement and open and free software development (ibid.). A recently issued draft of the UNESCO Recommendation on the Ethics of Artificial Intelligence (UNESCO, 2021) highlights the ethical implications of AI for education because ‘living in digitalizing societies requires new educational practices, the need for ethical reflection, critical thinking, responsible design practices, and new skills, given the implications for the labour market and employability’ (ibid., p. 5).

Policies and regulations play a critical role in guaranteeing inclusion in the design, implementation, use and outcomes of using ICT in LLL. The need for such initiatives has never been more pronounced. The COVID-19 pandemic upended traditional educational provision and workplace activity, forcing whole industries and sectors of the education system to shift their operations online. As a result, the integration of ICT has significantly increased across many of these sectors, illuminating the digital inequalities that reflect existing social inequalities across class, gender, race and age, among others, in the process. Governments are responsible for addressing these challenges and mapping out ICT in line with national priorities, which can also take place at the regional level as seen in the example in Box 1.1. Section 3.5 of Chapter 3 also focuses on the advancement of ICT for LLL implementation, with a particular emphasis on inclusion, and features many examples to illustrate the issues raised here.

Box 1.1. LLL in practice Digital transformation in Africa The African Union is encouraging a process of regional and national digitalization through its Digital Transformation Strategy for Africa (2020–2030). The stated overall objective for the strategy is ‘to harness digital technologies and innovation to transform African societies and economies to promote Africa's integration, generate inclusive economic growth, stimulate job creation, break the digital divide, and eradicate poverty for the continent’s socio-economic development and ensure Africa’s ownership of modern tools of digital management’ (AU, 2020, p. 2). The strategy is supported by the World Bank’s Digital Economy Initiative for Africa (DE4A) (World Bank, 2022), which aims to engender policy reform, interventions and investments in the digital economy across Africa. At the international level, the initiative promotes the interconnectedness of digital markets while stimulating growth in digital infrastructure, skills, financial services, business and entrepreneurship at the national level. So far, country diagnostics have been carried out in a number of African countries to shape implementation as the initiative progresses.

1.2.2. Transformations in the world of work

In the context of rapid and broad labour market transformation, the workplace is increasingly becoming a learning space. There is a growing demand for advanced skills, creativity and adaptability in the workplace; however, the pace and nature of technological changes – in the form of artificial intelligence and automation – make it difficult to predict what skills will be needed in the future while also necessitating the development of national LLL agendas.

The COVID-19 crisis resulted in considerable job losses and increased labour market inequality: women experienced a greater loss of employment than men, and lower-skilled workers were particularly exposed to job loss, notably in the informal economy. With technology developing rapidly, the likely impact on national economic systems is hard to predict; however, it is anticipated that workers will move between jobs more often and be subject to role changes that require constant upskilling or retraining.

Automation is also affecting the world of work with increasing intensity: while an estimated 3 per cent of jobs were at risk of automation in the early 2020s, this could increase to 30 per cent by the mid-2030s (PwC, 2022). Furthermore, due to demographic changes, people will remain in the workforce longer and an increasing proportion of the future workforce will be made up of those already in employment. While the planet is ageing, some regions, notably sub-Saharan Africa and the Caribbean, continue to experience major challenges to train and absorb in the labour market a fast-growing youth population.  Workers are thus likely to experience non-linear transitions between the labour market and education, returning to education to prepare for a career change or participating in learning programmes while working.

Unemployment and underemployment continue to represent major concerns for policy-makers. The International Labour Organization (ILO) reported a global youth unemployment rate of 13.6 per cent for 2019, or 67.6 million young people unemployed (ILO, 2020). In 2020, with the outbreak of COVID-19 and the subsequent restrictions on movement to minimize its spread, unemployment rose sharply and there was a huge loss of working hours as well as income. ILO estimated that, over the course of 2020, 8.8 per cent of all working hours – or 255 million full-time jobs – were lost around the world, with a global reduction of employment affecting 114 million people (ILO, 2021a).

Even before the COVID-19 pandemic, millions of young people around the world were trapped in a cycle of unemployment and informal, unpaid or low-paid work, yet education and LLL can – with effective policy-making and planning – positively impact their chances in the labour market by providing them with relevant skills (Hutchinson and Kettlewell, 2015). While unemployment has long-term negative effects on individuals’ well-being and implications for welfare costs to society, LLL policies targeting labour-market activation and skills enhancement can help to tackle unemployment and its psychological impacts (Mousteri, Daly and Delaney, 2018).

While the discourse on the fourth industrial revolution (sometimes referred to as Industry 4.0) concerns mostly cities and their peripheries, in many rural areas, agriculture continues to provide a major source of income. Providing employment opportunities for young people and reducing rural poverty are important concerns. This requires anticipation of how work in rural areas is changing, particularly as a result of climate change. Adapting to this change requires massive innovation in existing agricultural practices and the development of new skills and knowledge through vocational education programmes and training opportunities.

Hence, both urban and rural areas are witnessing rapid and structural transformations shaped by technology and climate change, requiring new skilling models.

New technologies, demographic shifts and climate change are transforming jobs and labour market participation patterns. Establishing a culture of lifelong learning at and for work is an imperative to adapt the workforce to new job requirements, to build more inclusive and just societies, and to promote personal fulfilment and development.

1.2.3. Demographic changes

Globally, people are living longer, there are fewer young people entering the labour market and the age profile of the population is becoming progressively older. According to estimates from the United Nations, the global population of people aged 65 or older numbered 727 million in 2020 (UN DESA, Population Division, 2020) and, by 2050, older people will outnumber youth (UN, 2022). People are working longer and the retirement age in many countries is being delayed. Among ageing populations where individuals remain active in the labour market for longer, there is a growing demand for upskilling and reskilling opportunities.

Demographic change also results from the forced displacement of large numbers of people because of conflict or natural disaster. The conflict in the Syrian Arab Republic, for example, has led to more than 6.1 million internally displaced people (IDMC, 2019), while the political, economic and social crisis in the Bolivian Republic of Venezuela has resulted in the migration of over 4.8 million people (UNHCR, 2020). Destination countries are challenged to quickly develop strategies to recognize and accredit formal and non-formal learning, skills and competences that refugees bring with them and to offer targeted learning programmes to support refugees’ integration into the national education system or labour market.

In recent years, a number of countries have put legislation in place for the integration of refugees (see UNESCO, 2018). Ethiopia’s Refugee Proclamation gives refugees access to schools, asserting that ‘every recognized refugee or asylum-seeker shall receive the same treatment as accorded to Ethiopian nationals with respect to access to pre-primary and primary education’ and that refugees are entitled to ‘the recognition of foreign school certificates, diplomas and degrees’ (Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, 2019, p. 16). In the Islamic Republic of Iran, a decree issued in 2015 by the head of state supported the acceptance of Afghan children to schools, even in the absence of proper documentation. This was followed in 2016 by government measures to support refugees, including a new educational support card for Afghan children without documentation (Hervé, 2018).

While these are positive examples, it is worth noting that, in many parts of the world, refugees still suffer from a tragic lack of educational opportunities. The benefits of improving this situation are clear: LLL can break down cultural and linguistic barriers, support informed, intelligent debate about migration flows, and create pathways to further learning. In addition, participation in LLL has been found to help citizens become more active in civil society and political life, more tolerant of diversity, and more aware of social and political issues. LLL promotes social cohesion and cultural understanding and supports the creation of learning communities at a local level that can address challenges such as low literacy levels, intergenerational poverty and environmental sustainability. In fact, learning communities can offer a means of managing and resolving conflict through mediation and dialogue, raising awareness about the causes of socio-economic issues and shaping public attitudes (UNESCO, 2018). Moreover, because LLL aims at creating learning opportunities for very different populations during different stages in their lives, it can be an effective response to demographic change. For example, LLL policies which consider the learning needs of older workers can support them in keeping up with new technological developments to encourage their continued participation in the labour market, which is often associated with wider socio-cultural benefits.

1.2.4. The urgency resulting from climate change

Climate change, and the need for climate action, are issues which are rapidly rising to the top of policy-makers’ agendas. The world’s climate system has been destabilized by human activity, and countries around the world are now witnessing floods, heatwaves, droughts and other types of extreme weather. These developments are made clear in the most recent report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change’s (IPCC) Working Group, which forecasts that such events will increase both in regularity and intensity, leading to potentially irreversible sea-level rises (IPCC, 2021). This latest report follows findings in 2020 that pollution of the atmosphere by greenhouse gases, loss of sea ice due to rising temperatures, and flooding caused by heavy rain all continue unabated (WMO, 2020). It is now inevitable that all parts of the world will be affected by climate-related disruption in the years to come – more acutely so in the Global South – so it is imperative that populations learn to adapt to these changes.

Here once again, LLL has a central role to play, firstly in terms of knowledge. Through learning opportunities accessible to all – no matter their age, nationality, education level, socio-economic background or ethnicity – populations can become sensitized to the ways in which the climate is changing, and the consequences being brought to bear at the international, national and local level. Secondly, LLL fosters resilience in response to climate change. While the trends and many of their expected consequences are clear, we do not yet know all the ways in which climate change will affect the way we live, and there are some consequences which are not yet knowable. A global population of resilient lifelong learners, who can identify and evaluate changes in their environment, formulate responses and find solutions to emerging issues, will be needed in the years ahead.

Policy-makers can foster this resilience at the local level by developing programmes to increase civic engagement. Climate-related learning opportunities can empower people to address the challenges posed by climate change in their localities and to find ways to manage their own resources sustainably. They may also lead to initiatives to raise awareness of the challenges brought by climate change, thereby enabling people to make better decisions compatible with sustainable development. This is important at every level of education, and it is a government responsibility to ensure that people are informed about the effects of climate change, its impact on food security, and how to promote the sustainable use of resources. Such information increases the likelihood that public debates on these topics will be fair, constructive and evidence-based.

At the same time, governments must create conditions conducive to actions at the grassroots level in response to climate change, as well as the creation of cross-sectoral partnerships. Resource mobilization by civil society organizations, learning institutions, communities and businesses can contribute significantly to climate action at the local level, as can collective initiatives such as the study circle, the learning neighbourhood and the learning city.

Box 1.2. LLL in practice How Cape Town faced its severe water crisis In 2017, Cape Town, South Africa, which then had a population of 3.7 million people, experienced the worst drought in over a century. The drought experience changed the way the citizens of Cape Town think about water and how it can be managed. Lifelong learning was fundamental in helping people of all ages respond to the crisis. For example, a drive led by city water officials equipped citizens with strategies to halve their water usage: this included taking shorter showers, only flushing the toilet when absolutely necessary, washing clothing less frequently, not watering the garden and collecting clean water at natural springs in the area. In addition, a strict limit of 50 litres of water from municipal supplies per person per day was introduced and grey-water systems were installed along with large water tanks for those who could afford them. The drought required the collective efforts of all sectors and from all levels of society to produce innovative and realistic solutions so that people could get by with less water and reinforce their hope for a sustainable future. Lifelong learning took place in various sections of society through initial education, adult learning and education, and other learning environments, such as the media, faith-based organizations and civil society.   Source: Walters, 2018

1.2.5. Health and well-being

The COVID-19 crisis has pushed health and well-being to the top of policy-makers’ agendas by revealing the cross-sectoral impact of health issues on education, society and the economy. Even before the pandemic, the benefits of education and health for individual life opportunities and societal advantages were widely known, as was the strong, mutually reinforcing relationship between education and health, where improvement in one has clear positive impacts on the other.

Participation in learning leads to improved health behaviours and attitudes, higher life expectancy and a reduction in lifestyle diseases, with a commensurate reduction in healthcare costs (UIL, 2016). New evidence of these effects is included in the fourth Global Report on Adult Learning and Education (GRALE 4), which found that adult education also has health-related advantages for families, as in the case of mothers who participate in literacy programmes that benefit their children’s health (UIL, 2019).

The community is also an essential setting for the dissemination of information on health, hygiene and related services, as demonstrated by the early efforts at local level to raise awareness about COVID-19 and prevent its spread. Learning in general – and non-formal and informal learning in particular – contribute to the improved health of individuals within communities. The World Health Organization’s ‘Health 2020’ initiative pointed to the creation of new learning environments that foster not only the cognitive development of the individual but also their social, physical, mental and emotional development. Furthermore, with a focus on social and emotional learning for learners’ self-esteem, community-based learning for health and well-being can encourage more active citizenship as well as inclusion (WHO, 2015).

Throughout the pandemic, which has threatened health and well-being in many ways, the benefits of LLL have been self-evident. As a direct response to the impact of COVID-19 on physical health, innovative LLL programmes for the promotion of hygiene and social distancing have highlighted the great value of informal learning through internet information campaigns, TV and public posters. Furthermore, universities, libraries and other organizations have made their educational resources free to use online. This has served to promote LLL opportunities at home during periods of restricted public activity. In terms of mental health and well-being, some universities have developed resources for people struggling to cope with the psychological impact of the pandemic.[1]

LLL for health and well-being has emerged as an important paradigm for the pandemic period and post-pandemic recovery. Recent events will continue to shape LLL policies and practices in the years to come, particularly with regard to two dimensions which policy-makers should consider. Firstly, learning for health equips individuals with the capacity to look after their own health and the health of their family. This relies on LLL opportunities for health literacy so that people can gain, critically evaluate and apply information to use in everyday health-related decision-making, thus contributing to their own health promotion (Jourdan et al., 2021). Secondly, learning for health can be considered a core dimension of citizenship education. This means recognizing the impact of citizens’ actions on the collective health of the community (Jourdan and Gray, 2022).

1.2.6. Strengthening citizenship

The world today faces unprecedented social, economic and environmental challenges that are driven by accelerating globalization and technological development. These newly emerging issues affect all aspects of society and have far-reaching repercussions. This includes, for instance, the spread of disinformation, which has led some people to deny climate and vaccine science or the root causes of poverty and migration flows, among other things. These fake news campaigns can result in citizens’ active resistance to policies and actions intended to address the very challenges that the world is experiencing. They can also instil and perpetuate populist political environments.

Over the last two decades, nationalist movements have gained traction in different countries around the world, motivated by exclusionary tendencies that foster division, chaos and even violence. The overwhelming COVID-19 pandemic, coupled with the urgency of climate change and the current rise of populist movements, have reminded us that learning is paramount in times such as this, and equipping citizens with sufficient knowledge and information to respond to these issues is key. National as well as local governments play an important role in this effort.

The four areas of sustainable development – economic growth, social inclusion, cultural expression and environmental protection – rely on the contributions of informed and active citizens. According to UNESCO’s definition, global citizenship is ‘a sense of belonging to a broader community and common humanity’ (UNESCO, 2015, p. 14). This global perspective empowers learners to ‘engage and assume active roles, both locally and globally, to face and resolve global challenges and ultimately to become proactive contributors to a more just, peaceful, tolerant, inclusive, secure and sustainable world’ (UNESCO, 2014, p. 15).

In a reference framework entitled Key Competences for Lifelong Learning, published by the European Commission (2019), citizenship competence is articulated as involving an understanding of common social values and a differentiated view of main historical developments at local, national and global levels. It further refers to critical thinking, problem-solving skills, and an involvement in civic activities and decision-making at all levels of government. Global and active citizenship builds fundamentally on the respect for human rights and includes ‘support for social and cultural diversity, gender equality and social cohesion, sustainable lifestyles, promotion of culture of peace and non-violence, a readiness to respect the privacy of others, and to take responsibility for the environment’ (ibid., p. 12).

To enhance people’s knowledge, skills and attitudes for becoming active citizens, citizenship education takes a multifaceted approach, including human rights education, peace education, education for sustainable development, and education for international understanding. It applies a LLL perspective, beginning from early childhood and continuing through all levels of education and into adulthood, including both formal and informal approaches, curricular and extracurricular interventions, and conventional and unconventional pathways to participation (UNESCO, 2015, p. 15). While focus has been given to citizenship education in schools and formal education, further efforts are needed to raise awareness and enhance competences for active and global citizenship among youth and adults.

Box 1.3. LLL in practice Strengthening citizenship in learning cities Good practices for strengthening citizenship education at the local level can be found among the members of the UNESCO Global Network of Learning Cities’ (GNLC) thematic cluster on citizenship education. A survey conducted in 2019 showed a richness and variety of initiatives taken by cluster members to promote active citizenship. The results demonstrated that a wide range of stakeholders contribute to citizenship education, including municipal governments, foundations and associations, schools and universities, training institutes, community centres, libraries and social clubs. The city of Yeonsu-gu in the Republic of Korea has implemented several citizenship projects to enhance civic engagement, build community resilience and foster direct democracy. An ‘online multi-family housing management platform’ supports the exchange of information across local communities and enables citizens’ direct participation in decision-making processes at the local level regardless of time and space. Also in the Republic of Korea, the city of Bucheon uses liberal arts to foster active citizenship. The arts are used as a vehicle for increasing critical awareness among citizens, involving, for example, a poetry contest oriented towards global citizenship. To foster social inclusion, the Brazilian City of Contagem promotes education and non-discrimination. For example, through the School with No Borders project, initiated in 2015, Portuguese language classes are offered to immigrants, including individualized assistance for immigrant elementary students and their parents, easing communication between the school and the family. Source: UIL et al., 2021

[1] For more examples of how universities have supported local communities in terms of health and well-being during the COVID-19 pandemic, see the recent UNESCO Education Sector issue note on higher education institutions’ engagement with the community, which is available at: https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000374128 [Accessed 1 February 2022].